Hardware

by Spencer Tiberi

Binary

  • We use computers everyday
  • Inside a computer are “0s and 1s”
    • Computers use the binary number system to represent info
      • How do computers represent info with just binary?
  • Consider the decimal number (what we human typically use) 123
    • The rightmost column is the 1s column
    • The middle, the 10s
    • The leftmost, the 100s

      100 10 1
      1 2 3
    • Thus we have 100 x 1 + 10 x 2 + 1 x 3 = 100 + 20 + 3 = 123
  • Inside a computer, the binary 000 would represent 0, just like in our human world!
    • However, in this case we are dealing with binary so:
      • The right most column is the 1s place
      • The middle, the 2s
      • The leftmost, the 4s
      4 2 1
      0 0 0
    • In the human world (decimal) we use powers of 10 for place values
      • 100 = 1, 101 = 10, 102 = 100, 103 = 1000, etc.
    • In the computer world (binary) we use powers of 2 for place values
      • 20 = 1, 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, etc.
    • The difference between decimal numbers and binary numbers is changing the base
    • For the binary number 000, we have 4 x 0 + 2 x 0 + 1 x 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0!
  • Consider the binary number 001:

    4 2 1
    0 0 0
    • We have 4 x 0 + 2 x 0 + 1 x 1 = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1
  • How do we represent the decimal number 2 in binary?
    • We don’t need a 4, be we need a 2, and also no 1
    4 2 1
    0 1 0
    • This gives us 4 x 0 + 2 x 1 + 1 x 0 = 0 + 2 + 0 = 2
  • Likewise, the number 3 would be:

    4 2 1
    0 1 1
    • As we need a 2 and a 1
    • Thus, 4 x 0 + 2 x 1 + 1 x 1 = 0 + 2 + 1 = 3
  • Similarly, 4 would be:

    4 2 1
    1 0 0
  • What about 7?

    4 2 1
    1 1 1
    • Which yields 4 x 1 + 2 x 1 + 1 x 1 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
  • What about 8?
    • We can’t count to 8 without another bit (binary digit)
      • We run into this in the real world too if we need a four-digit number vs a 3-digit number
        • Start with the 1s, 10s, 100s place and add the 1000s
      • Here we’ll add the next power of 2, 8
      8 4 2 1
      1 0 0 0
      • 8 x 1 + 4 x 0 + 2 x 0 + 1 x 0 = 8
  • Even though computers only use binary, they can count as high as humans can!
    • They do it with a smaller vocabulary, just 1 and 0.
      • This is because it’s easier to represent two states in the physical world
        • If you think of one of these bits as being a light bulb:
          • 0 is off
          • 1 is on
        • Light bulbs just need electricity to turn on or off
        • Electricity is sufficient to turn a switch on or off
          • Inside a computer exists these switches called transistors
            • Modern computers have billions!
            • Turned off represents 0
            • Turned on represents 1
  • Using these transistors we can store values, store data, compute, and do everything we can with computers
  • David demonstrates how transistors work using light bulbs
  • So far all that we can represent is numbers
    • A decision needs to be made on what pattern of 1s and 0s to represent letters, words, and paragraphs
    • All computers can store is 0s and 1s
    • To represent letters, we need a mapping of 0s and 1s to characters
      • ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) does this

      • 65 -> A, 66 -> B, 67 -> C, etc.
      • 97 -> a, 98 -> b, 99 -> c, etc.
      • ASCII also has mapping for punctuation symbols
    • Programs like notepad, textedit, and MicroSoft Word decide weather to display patterns of bits as letters or words
      • Computers only store 0s and 1s, but the programs interpret those bits in a certain way
        • For example, if MicroSoft word sees a pattern of buts representing the number 65, it will interpret that as “A”
    • ASCII is limited
      • Original ASCII is 7 bits, thus giving 128 characters
        • Extended ASCII is 8 bits, yielding 256 characters
      • Many symbols are not represented
    • UNICODE is a bigger set of characters that includes written languages other than English and even emoji! 😲
      • All are still represented by a pattern of bits
  • Consider this pattern of bits: 01001000 01001001
    • 16 bits or 2 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits)
    128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1   128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
    0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0   0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
    1 x 64 + 1 x 8 1 x 64 + 1 x 8 + 1 x 1
    72 73
    H I
    • Using ASCII we get the word “HI”

CPU

  • If you have heard that your computer has “Intel Inside,” it has an Intel processor in it

    • The backside of the processor has pins that connect into the motherboard
      • The motherboard is a circuit board made of silicon
  • The CPU is the brain of the computer
    • Does all the thinking
    • Performs math in numbers fed to it
    • Helps display numbers on a screen
    • Adds or deletes numbers
  • CPUs now can have multiple cores
    • Cores are the devices inside the CPU that can preform mathematical operations, load info from memory, save info to memory, etc.
    • The more cores, the more tasks a CPU can do at once
  • CPUs now also support hyper-threading
    • Where a single core will present itself as multiple cores to a computer’s operating system
  • Systems on a Chip (SoaC) are when a CPU and more are all interconnected at once rather than attached to a motherboard
    • Popular in phones, tablets, and game consoles
    • Raspberry Pi

RAM (Random Access Memory)

  • Circuit board with chips that slides into a slot on the motherboard

    • The chips store data
      • Only stores data when the power is on
    • Files and programs are loaded onto these chips when ran
    • Fast memory
  • You can check your RAM and other specs:

    • Windows Task Manager

      • CPU chart shows when peak usage occurs
      • GHz is the number of operations a CPU can perform per second (in billions)
        • 1.94 GHz = 1.94 billion operations per second
      • Logical processors in this case is 4, which means both cores support hyper-threading
        • Each core will do two things at once as if 4 cores exist
    • Mac System Profiler

Hard Drives

  • When you turn a computer off, you need a place to store data
    • A hard disk drive (HDD) stores this information

    • RAM may store 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, through 16 GB or so
    • HDD stores 256 GB, 1024 GB (AKA terabyte or TB), 2 TB
    • Inside a HDD, metal platters physically spin around

      • Data is stored on these disks
      • The reading heads move back and forth reading data from the device
      • Uses tiny magnetic particles where north pole orientation represents 1 and south pole orientation represents 0
        • Power is only needed to read or change the data
          • Data is preserved when power is off
      • David shows a video of a HDD running in slowmo
  • To store data in a hard drive, RAM sends data and instructions to the HDD
    • The hard drive translates that data into voltage fluctuations
      • Some signals spin the platters, others move the read/write heads
      • Pulses sent to the read/write head turn on a magnet which creates a field that changes the polarity of a tiny portion of the metal platter’s surface
      • Power is sent in different directions as to change polarity
    • To read, the particles on the disk use their charge to move the read/write head.
    • Pieces of a file can be spread out around the platters
      • A special file keeps track of data’s location
    • Anytime you have a physical device that moves over a period of time, things go wrong
      • Dropping a HDD can corrupt files
    • Platters spin slower than how fast electrons move

Flash Memory

  • Solid state disk (SSD)

    • Smaller (3.5 inch width for HDD vs 2.5 inch width for SSD)
      • Still fits where old HDDs are
    • No moving particles
    • Inside, it looks a lot like RAM

    • Much faster than HDD
      • Programs/files load and save more quickly
    • SSD theoretically don’t last as long as HDD
      • Finite number of writes
  • Hybrid Drives
    • Some GB of solid state memory and more GB or TB of HDD space
    • Stores as much of frequently-needed data on the SSD
    • Stores less frequently-needed data on HDD
  • Flash memory also exists in the form of USB sticks
    • Might store 1 GB, 16 GB, or more
    • Portable
  • External SSDs exist for more storage
    • Might store 256 GB or more
    • Can be used to share data with others without network usage
  • Can also have external HDD

Types of Memory and Funneling

  • There is a tradeoff between space, money, and speed of data transfer

    • Data is pushed “down the funnel” to your CPU
      • From the hard drive, data first goes to the RAM

      • Theoretically, the CPU never has to wait for data to crunch
      • There is a tiny amount of memory (bytes) called registers where numbers are stored for operations.
      • Memory at the bottom is more expensive
      • Disk is important for the long-term storage
      • RAM is important as it stores programs you use simultaneously
      • L3, L2, L1 cache are on the motherboard
  • As an analogy for memory, picture a candy store
    • A customer approaches the counter and requests candy
    • The shop owner then leaves the counter to grab the candy before returning moments later
      • Not super efficient to walk all the way to the store room to grab candy
        • Better to have a cache of memory
    • Instead, the shop owner leaves the counter to ready a cache of candy before the customers arrive
    • When a customer comes, the candy can be distributed quickly
      • Cache memory similarly helps the CPU in this manner
  • We can see sizes of cache looking at computer specs like before

Display Connectors

  • These sockets all connect to monitors or displays
  • Mini DisplayPort are used form monitors
  • HDMI is not only on laptops and computers but also TVs
  • VGA is older, but still commonly uses on projectors

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

  • Can plug in a whole range of peripheral devices including printers, keyboards, mice, scanners, etc.
  • USB-A most common
  • USB-B is often used for printers and scanners
  • USB-C is newer and can be plugged in coming from different directions
  • Other variants often exist for phones
  • Older USB connections are slower when transferring data
    • Hard drives can connect via USB
      • Even if a hard drive is fast, if the USB is slow, the transfer of data will be slow

Wireless

  • Wifi is wireless internet
  • Bluetooth allows devices such as wireless keyboards and headphones to connect to your computer
    • Limited range
      • This is ok as it is used for you to connect to your own device

Operating System (OS)

  • Software that ensures all devices work and can intercommunicate
  • MacOS and Windows are popular OS
  • Can be installed by the user, but is typically done so by a manufacturer
    • Installed on HDD or SDD so that it exists persistently without power
  • When you hit power on your computer, the OS is loaded into RAM
  • Gives you the graphical interface that you see
  • Knows how to:
    • Talk to your keyboard and mouse
    • Display info on the screen
    • Move things around in memory
  • This is all thanks to device drivers installed with the OS
    • Special software designed to talk to certain model of printer, camera, scanner, etc.
  • When an OS doesn’t recognize a device, perhaps because it’s too new, you can download new device drives from the device manufacturer
    • Teaches Window, MacOS, or Linux about that new hardware
    • Future-proofing structure
  • It’s this intersection of hardware and software that makes computers powerful!

Looking Underneath the Hood

  • David and Colton Ogden look at the exterior of an old ThinkPad computer, examining ports
    • Power bricks convert power from the wall into safe amounts for the computer
  • David and Colton examine the inside of an old window desktop, highlighting the motherboard, heatsink, RAM, Hard Drive, etc.
  • David and Colton then look inside a HDD
    • Once exposed to air and dust, it’s no longer reliable enough to use
  • David and Colton then look at a motherboard examining all the ports on it